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1 learning technique
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > learning technique
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2 learning technique
Математика: обучающий метод -
3 learning technique
tehnika uÄenja -
4 learning technique
мат. -
5 learning technique
Англо-русский словарь по исследованиям и ноу-хау > learning technique
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6 learning technique
The English-Russian dictionary on reliability and quality control > learning technique
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7 technique
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8 learning-model technique
learning-model technique Lernmodellverfahren nEnglish-German dictionary of Electrical Engineering and Electronics > learning-model technique
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9 action learning
HRlearning by sharing real problems with others, as opposed to theoretical classroom learning. Action learning was introduced in the mid-1940s by Reg Revans, who expressed it as: Learning = Programmed knowledge + the ability to ask insightful Questions, or L = P + Q. The technique works best when people in small groups tackle real work-based problems with a view to solving them. Action learning differs from experiential learning, which can apply to an individual alone. -
10 SALT
1) Общая лексика: (советско-американские) договорённости по ограничению стратегических вооружений, переговоры ОСВ, переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), переговоры по ограничению стратегических вооружений2) Компьютерная техника: Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies, Suse Advanced Linux Technology3) Медицина: skin-assosiated lymphoid tissue4) Разговорное выражение: договор по ограничению стратегических вооружений5) Американизм: Strategic Alliance For Leadership Training, Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitations Talks6) Военный термин: Serving And Learning Together, Supporting Arms Liaison Team, self-contained all-weather landing and taxiing, strategic arms limitation talks, strategic arms limitations treaty, ОСВ, переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений7) Техника: sealed and lubricated track8) Сельское хозяйство: Sloping Agriculture Land Technology9) Математика: Semi Analytic Liu Theory10) Религия: Savior's Alliance For Lifting The Truth, Scripture And Leadership Training, Servant Action Leadership Team, Servant Approach Leadership Training, Servants At Leadership Training, Share Agape Love Together, Sharing And Living The Truth, Students Are Living Testimonies11) Метеорология: South American Lithosphere Transect12) Юридический термин: Seniors And Lawmen Together, Summers Amazing Leavenworth Trip14) Университет: Semester Away Let's Talk, Senior Awesome Leadership Team, Student Action Leadership Team, Student Activist Leadership Training, Students Acquiring Leadership Training, Students And Leaders Talking15) Вычислительная техника: Script Application Language for Telix, Suse Advanced Linux Technology (Suse, Linux)16) Иммунология: skin-associated lymphoid tissue17) Транспорт: Speech Application Language Tags18) СМИ: Sound And Light Team19) Образование: School Accountability For Learning And Teaching, Science Art And Literature Together, Service Action Learning Team, Sharing And Learning Together, Simply Awesome Learning Technique, Special Assignment Literacy Team, Strategic Alternative Learning Techniques, Student Adult Leadership Training, Support Access For Learners And Teachers21) Должность: Speech And Language Therapy22) Правительство: State And Local Tax -
11 Salt
1) Общая лексика: (советско-американские) договорённости по ограничению стратегических вооружений, переговоры ОСВ, переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), переговоры по ограничению стратегических вооружений2) Компьютерная техника: Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies, Suse Advanced Linux Technology3) Медицина: skin-assosiated lymphoid tissue4) Разговорное выражение: договор по ограничению стратегических вооружений5) Американизм: Strategic Alliance For Leadership Training, Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitations Talks6) Военный термин: Serving And Learning Together, Supporting Arms Liaison Team, self-contained all-weather landing and taxiing, strategic arms limitation talks, strategic arms limitations treaty, ОСВ, переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений7) Техника: sealed and lubricated track8) Сельское хозяйство: Sloping Agriculture Land Technology9) Математика: Semi Analytic Liu Theory10) Религия: Savior's Alliance For Lifting The Truth, Scripture And Leadership Training, Servant Action Leadership Team, Servant Approach Leadership Training, Servants At Leadership Training, Share Agape Love Together, Sharing And Living The Truth, Students Are Living Testimonies11) Метеорология: South American Lithosphere Transect12) Юридический термин: Seniors And Lawmen Together, Summers Amazing Leavenworth Trip14) Университет: Semester Away Let's Talk, Senior Awesome Leadership Team, Student Action Leadership Team, Student Activist Leadership Training, Students Acquiring Leadership Training, Students And Leaders Talking15) Вычислительная техника: Script Application Language for Telix, Suse Advanced Linux Technology (Suse, Linux)16) Иммунология: skin-associated lymphoid tissue17) Транспорт: Speech Application Language Tags18) СМИ: Sound And Light Team19) Образование: School Accountability For Learning And Teaching, Science Art And Literature Together, Service Action Learning Team, Sharing And Learning Together, Simply Awesome Learning Technique, Special Assignment Literacy Team, Strategic Alternative Learning Techniques, Student Adult Leadership Training, Support Access For Learners And Teachers21) Должность: Speech And Language Therapy22) Правительство: State And Local Tax -
12 salt
1) Общая лексика: (советско-американские) договорённости по ограничению стратегических вооружений, переговоры ОСВ, переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), переговоры по ограничению стратегических вооружений2) Компьютерная техника: Standards-based Access service to multilingual Lexicons and Terminologies, Suse Advanced Linux Technology3) Медицина: skin-assosiated lymphoid tissue4) Разговорное выражение: договор по ограничению стратегических вооружений5) Американизм: Strategic Alliance For Leadership Training, Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, Strategic Arms Limitations Talks6) Военный термин: Serving And Learning Together, Supporting Arms Liaison Team, self-contained all-weather landing and taxiing, strategic arms limitation talks, strategic arms limitations treaty, ОСВ, переговоры об ограничении стратегических вооружений7) Техника: sealed and lubricated track8) Сельское хозяйство: Sloping Agriculture Land Technology9) Математика: Semi Analytic Liu Theory10) Религия: Savior's Alliance For Lifting The Truth, Scripture And Leadership Training, Servant Action Leadership Team, Servant Approach Leadership Training, Servants At Leadership Training, Share Agape Love Together, Sharing And Living The Truth, Students Are Living Testimonies11) Метеорология: South American Lithosphere Transect12) Юридический термин: Seniors And Lawmen Together, Summers Amazing Leavenworth Trip14) Университет: Semester Away Let's Talk, Senior Awesome Leadership Team, Student Action Leadership Team, Student Activist Leadership Training, Students Acquiring Leadership Training, Students And Leaders Talking15) Вычислительная техника: Script Application Language for Telix, Suse Advanced Linux Technology (Suse, Linux)16) Иммунология: skin-associated lymphoid tissue17) Транспорт: Speech Application Language Tags18) СМИ: Sound And Light Team19) Образование: School Accountability For Learning And Teaching, Science Art And Literature Together, Service Action Learning Team, Sharing And Learning Together, Simply Awesome Learning Technique, Special Assignment Literacy Team, Strategic Alternative Learning Techniques, Student Adult Leadership Training, Support Access For Learners And Teachers21) Должность: Speech And Language Therapy22) Правительство: State And Local Tax -
13 обучающий метод
Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > обучающий метод
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14 BLT
1) Медицина: биолюминисцентная томография (bioluminescence tomography)2) Ботаника: Brown Leaf Tomatoes3) Спорт: Back Low Throw, Better Luck Tomorrow4) Военный термин: Basic Leadership Training, British liaison team, battalion landing team, boat landing team, bomber light, tanker5) Техника: band-limited transmission, beam-lead technique6) Шутливое выражение: Barbara Lee's Team, Bossy Little Thing7) Математика: Bilinear transform, bounded linear transformation8) Религия: Bible Learning Together, Bible Lunch Tuesday9) Ветеринария: Black Lion Tamarin10) Сокращение: BLock Transfer, Battalion Landing Team (US Marine Corps), Branch Less Than, Briefing & Liaison Team, borrowed light, Bacon, Lettuce, and Tomato (sandwich), Base-Line Test11) Текстиль: Biggest Longest And Trashiest12) Физиология: Bright Light Therapy13) Электроника: Balanced Line Tuner14) Вычислительная техника: Baghdad Local Time-3:00, BLock Transfer (Instruction), Branch Less Than (Instruction)15) Нефть: Build-Lease-Transfer16) Иммунология: Bright Light Treatment17) Транспорт: Basic Loaded Touring19) Фирменный знак: Berkeley Learning Technology, Blues Lobby Team20) СМИ: Black Leather Times21) Образование: Becoming Leaders Of Tomorrow, Bloated Little Tots22) Расширение файла: Baghdad Local Time (+3:00)23) Должность: Building Leadership Team24) NYSE. Blount International, Inc.25) Аэропорты: Blackwater, Queensland, Australia26) Программное обеспечение: Basic Linux Training27) Единицы измерений: Barbara Lees Team28) Международная торговля: Business Lunch Together -
15 asymptotic
1) асимптотический
2) асимптотика
3) полусходящийся ∙ arcwise asymptotic value ≈ дуговое асимптотическое значение asymptotic confidence interval ≈ асимптотический доверительный интервал asymptotic equipartition property ≈ свойство асимптотической равнораспределенности asymptotic essential component ≈ асимптотическая существенная компонента asymptotic expansion formula ≈ формула асимптотического разложения ( функции) asymptotic passage theorem ≈ теорема об асимптотическом поведении переходных вероятностей asymptotic power series expansion ≈ разложение в асимптотический степенной ряд asymptotic sequential design ≈ асимптотический последовательный план basic asymptotic estimate ≈ основная асимптотическая оценка central asymptotic problem ≈ центральная асимптотическая проблема doubly asymptotic triangle ≈ дважды асимптотический треугольник first asymptotic distribution ≈ первое предельное распределение multiply asymptotic series ≈ многократно асимптотический ряд negatively asymptotic point ≈ отрицательно асимптотическая точка pointwise asymptotic value ≈ точечное асимптотическое значение positively asymptotic point ≈ положительно асимптотическая точка simple asymptotic sieve ≈ простое асимптотическое решето trebly asymptotic triangle ≈ трижды асимптотический треугольник uniform asymptotic representation ≈ равномерное асимптотическое представление virtually asymptotic net ≈ виртуально асимптотическая сеть - asymptotic expression - asymptotic fairness - asymptotic fibration - asymptotic field - asymptotic flatness - asymptotic form - asymptotic formula - asymptotic frequency - asymptotic function - asymptotic geodesic - asymptotic growth - asymptotic helicity - asymptotic hexagon - asymptotic hyperplane - asymptotic inadmissibility - asymptotic independence - asymptotic inequality - asymptotic information - asymptotic integration - asymptotic interpolation - asymptotic invariance - asymptotic iteration - asymptotic law - asymptotic learning - asymptotic likelihood - asymptotic limit - asymptotic line - asymptotic linearity - asymptotic mean - asymptotic method - asymptotic mimimum - asymptotic minimax - asymptotic model - asymptotic moment - asymptotic nature - asymptotic negligibility - asymptotic net - asymptotic normalcy - asymptotic normality - asymptotic operator - asymptotic optimality - asymptotic optimum - asymptotic order - asymptotic parabola - asymptotic parallel - asymptotic path - asymptotic period - asymptotic phase - asymptotic plane - asymptotic point - asymptotic power - asymptotic prediction - asymptotic prime - asymptotic probability - asymptotic problem - asymptotic property - asymptotic proportionality - asymptotic ratio - asymptotic recurrence - asymptotic region - asymptotic relation - asymptotic representation - asymptotic resolvent - asymptotic restriction - asymptotic result - asymptotic root - asymptotic scaling - asymptotic semiform - asymptotic sequence - asymptotic series - asymptotic set - asymptotic shape - asymptotic sieve - asymptotic simplicity - asymptotic slope - asymptotic smallness - asymptotic solution - asymptotic spot - asymptotic stability - asymptotic state - asymptotic sufficiency - asymptotic sum - asymptotic surface - asymptotic symbol - asymptotic symmetry - asymptotic technique - asymptotic test - asymptotic theor - asymptotic theorem - asymptotic tract - asymptotic trajectory - asymptotic transformation - asymptotic triangle - asymptotic twistor - asymptotic unbiasedness - asymptotic value - asymptotic variable - asymptotic variance - asymptotic vector - isothermally asymptoticасимптотическийasymptotic асимптотическийБольшой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > asymptotic
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16 process
I 1. noun1) (of time or history) Lauf, derhe learnt a lot in the process — er lernte eine Menge dabei
be in process — in Gang sein
3) (method) Verfahren, das; see also academic.ru/23789/elimination">elimination 1)2. transitive verbprocess of evolution — Evolutionsprozess, der
verarbeiten [Rohstoff, Signal, Daten]; bearbeiten [Antrag, Akte, Darlehen]; (for conservation) behandeln [Leder, Lebensmittel]; (Photog.) entwickeln [Film]II[prə'ses] intransitive verb ziehen* * *['prəuses, ]( American[) 'pro-] 1. noun1) (a method or way of manufacturing things: We are using a new process to make glass.) das Verfahren2) (a series of events that produce change or development: The process of growing up can be difficult for a child; the digestive processes.) der Prozeß3) (a course of action undertaken: Carrying him down the mountain was a slow process.) der Vorgang2. verb(to deal with (something) by the appropriate process: Have your photographs been processed?; The information is being processed by computer.) bearbeiten- processed- in the process of* * *pro·cess1[ˈprəʊses, AM ˈprɑ:-]I. n<pl -es>\process of ageing Alterungsprozess mby a \process of elimination durch Auslesedigestive \process Verdauungsvorgang ma new \process for treating breast cancer eine neue Methode zur Behandlung von Brustkrebsto develop a new \process ein neues Verfahren entwickeln▪ in \process im Gangein the \process dabei▪ to be in the \process of doing sth dabei sein, etw zu tun5. (summons) gerichtliche Verfügungto serve sb a \process [or a \process on sb] jdn vorladenII. vt1. (deal with)▪ to \process sth etw bearbeitento \process an application/a document/the mail einen Antrag/ein Dokument/die Post bearbeitento \process sb's papers [or paperwork] jds Papiere durcharbeiten▪ to \process sb jdn abfertigen2. COMPUTto \process data/information Daten/Informationen verarbeiten [o aufbereiten▪ to \process sth etw verstehen [o [geistig] verarbeiten4. (treat)▪ to \process sth etw bearbeiten [o behandeln]to \process beans for freezing/canning Bohnen zum Einfrieren/Einmachen verarbeitento \process food Nahrungsmittel haltbar machen [o konservieren]to \process raw materials Rohstoffe [weiter]verarbeitento \process milk Milch sterilisieren5. PHOTto \process a film einen Film entwickelnpro·cess2[prə(ʊ)ˈses, AM prəˈ-]vi ( form) [in einer Prozession] mitgehen* * *I ['prəʊses]1. n1) Prozess mthe process of time will... —
in the process of time — im Laufe der Zeit, mit der Zeit
to be in the process of doing sth — dabei sein, etw zu tun
a process of a bone/of the jaw — ein Knochen-/Kiefernvorsprung m
2. vt(= treat) raw materials, data, information, waste verarbeiten; food konservieren; milk sterilisieren; application, loan, wood bearbeiten; film entwickeln; (= deal with) applicants, people abfertigen II [prə'ses]vi(Brit: go in procession) ziehen, schreiten* * *process1 [ˈprəʊses; US auch ˈprɑ-]A sa) Herstellungsverfahren,b) Herstellungsprozess, -vorgang m, Werdegang m;in process of construction im Bau (befindlich);be in the process of doing sth dabei sein, etwas zu tun;process average mittlere Fertigungsgüte;process automation Prozessautomatisierung f;process engineering Verfahrenstechnik f;process of combustion Verbrennungsvorgang;processes of life Lebensvorgänge;mental process, process of thinking Denkprozess3. Arbeitsgang m4. Fortgang m, -schreiten n, (Ver)Lauf m (der Zeit):in process of time im Laufe der Zeit;be in process im Gange sein, sich abwickeln;in process of im Verlauf von (od gen);the machine was damaged in the process dabei wurde die Maschine beschädigt5. CHEMa) → A 1, A 2:b) Reaktionsfolge f6. TYPO fotomechanisches Reproduktionsverfahren:7. FOTO Übereinanderkopieren n8. JURb) Rechtsgang m, (Gerichts)Verfahren n:due process of law ordentliches Verfahren, rechtliches Gehör9. ANAT Fortsatz m10. BOT Auswuchs m11. fig Vorsprung m12. MATH Auflösungsverfahren n (einer Aufgabe)B v/t1. bearbeiten, behandeln, einem Verfahren unterwerfen2. verarbeiten, Lebensmittel haltbar machen, Milch etc sterilisieren, (chemisch) behandeln, Stoff imprägnieren, Rohstoffe etc aufbereiten:process into verarbeiten zu;process information Daten verarbeiten;processed cheese Schmelzkäse m3. JURa) vorladenb) gerichtlich belangen5. fig jemandes Fall etc bearbeitenprocess2 [prəˈses] v/i besonders Br1. in einer Prozession (mit)gehen2. ziehenproc. abk2. procedure3. process* * *I 1. noun1) (of time or history) Lauf, der2. transitive verbprocess of evolution — Evolutionsprozess, der
verarbeiten [Rohstoff, Signal, Daten]; bearbeiten [Antrag, Akte, Darlehen]; (for conservation) behandeln [Leder, Lebensmittel]; (Photog.) entwickeln [Film]II[prə'ses] intransitive verb ziehen* * *n.(§ pl.: processes)= Arbeitsgang m.Prozess -e m.Vorgang -¨e m. v.entwickeln v.verarbeiten v.weiter verarbeiten ausdr. -
17 school
I 1. noun1) Schule, die; (Amer.): (university, college) Hochschule, die; attrib. Schul-to/from school — zur/von od. aus der Schule
2) attrib. Schul[aufsatz, -bus, -jahr, -system]school holidays — Schulferien Pl.
school exchange — Schüleraustausch, der
the school term — die Schulzeit
3) (disciples) Schule, die2. transitive verbschool of thought — Lehrmeinung, die
(train) erziehen; dressieren [Pferd]II nounschool somebody in something — jemanden in etwas (Akk.) unterweisen (geh.)
* * *I 1. [sku:l] noun1) (a place for teaching especially children: She goes to the school; He's not at university - he's still at school; (American) He's still in school.) die Schule2) (the pupils of a school: The behaviour of this school in public is sometimes not very good.) die Schüler (pl.)3) (a series of meetings or a place for instruction etc: She runs a sewing school; a driving school.) die Schule4) (a department of a university or college dealing with a particular subject: the School of Mathematics.) die Fakultät5) ((American) a university or college.) die Hochschule6) (a group of people with the same ideas etc: There are two schools of thought about the treatment of this disease.) die Schule2. verb(to train through practice: We must school ourselves to be patient.) sich erziehen- academic.ru/64671/schoolbag">schoolbag- schoolboy
- schoolgirl
- schoolchild
- school-day
- schooldays
- schoolfellow
- school-leaver
- schoolmaster
- schoolmate
- school-teacher II [sku:l] noun(a group of certain kinds of fish, whales or other water animals swimming about: a school of porpoises.) der Schwarm* * *school1[sku:l]I. ngraduate/undergraduate \school AM hohe/niedrige Stufe innerhalb des Hochschulsystemssecondary \school ≈ weiterführende [o höhere] Schule, ≈ Hauptschule f ÖSTERR, ≈ Mittelschule f SCHWEIZvocational \school Berufsschule f▪ to be in \school in der Schule seinto leave \school von der Schule [ab]gehen; (with diploma) die Schule beenden [o abschließen]to teach \school AM [an der Schule] unterrichten▪ to be at \school with sb mit jdm zusammen zur Schule gehen\school starts at 9 am die Schule fängt um 9 Uhr morgens an4. (pupils and staff)the whole \school + sing vb die ganze Schuledancing/driving \school Tanz-/Fahrschule fthe \school of life die Schule des Lebens fig8. ART, PHILOS Schule fthe Impressionist \school of painting die Schule des Impressionismus9.▶ to be one of the old \school von der alten Schule sein▶ to tell tales out of \school aus der Schule plaudernII. vt▪ to \school sb1. (educate) jdn erziehen2. (train) jdn schulenyou must \school yourself to be tolerant du musst dich in Toleranz übenher children are well \schooled in correct behaviour ihre Kinder wissen sich korrekt zu benehmento \school a dog einen Hund dressieren\school cafeteria Schülercafeteria f\school paper Schülerzeitung f\school zone Schulgebiet ntschool2[sku:l]\school of fish Fischschwarm m* * *I [skuːl]1. nat school — in der Schule/im College/an der Universität
to go to school — in die Schule/ins College/zur Universität gehen
school of art/dancing, art/dancing school — Kunst-/Tanzschule f
to be brought up in the school of hard knocks — durch bittere or schlechte Erfahrungen gelernt haben
to take sb to school (inf) — es jdm zeigen (inf)
School of Arabic Studies — Institut nt für Arabistik
3) (= group of artists, philosophers etc) Schule fPlato and his school — Platon und seine Schüler(schaft)
I'm not one of that school — ich gehöre nicht zu den Leuten, die das meinen
he adheres to another school of thought — er vertritt eine andere Lehrmeinung
2. vtlehren; animal dressieren; one's temper zügelnto school sb in a technique — jdn eine Technik lehren, jdn in einer Technik unterrichten or unterweisen
IIhe schooled himself to control his temper — er hatte sich dazu erzogen, sich zu beherrschen
n(of fish) Schule f; (of herrings) Schwarm m* * *school1 [skuːl]A s1. Schule f (Institution):her children are still at school ihre Kinder gehen noch zur Schule;school for the deaf Gehörlosenschule;school of flying Fliegerschule;2. (meist ohne art) (Schul)Unterricht m, Schule f:after school nach der Schule;go to school zur Schule gehen;put to school einschulen;3. Schule f, Schulhaus n, -gebäude n4. US Hochschule f5. UNIVa) Fakultät f, Fachbereich mb) Institut n7. fig harte etc Schule:8. MAL, PHIL etc Schule f:other schools of opinion andere Meinungsrichtungen;school of thought (geistige) Richtung;there are different schools of thought on that darüber gehen die Meinungen auseinander; → old school9. UNIV, HIST Hörsaal m11. SCHIFF, MILa) Exerziervorschrift fb) Drill m12. MUS Schule f:a) Lehrbuch nb) Lehre f, System nB v/t1. einschulen2. schulen, ausbilden ( beide:in dat):schooled geschult, geübt3. sein Temperament, seine Zunge etc zügeln, beherrschen4. school o.s. (to) sich erziehen (zu), sich üben (in dat);school o.s. to do sth lernen oder sich daran gewöhnen, etwas zu tun5. ein Pferd dressieren6. obs tadelnschool2 [skuːl] s FISCH Schwarm m (auch fig), Schule f, Zug m (Wale etc)* * *I 1. noun1) Schule, die; (Amer.): (university, college) Hochschule, die; attrib. Schul-be at or in school — in der Schule sein; (attend school) zur Schule gehen
to/from school — zur/von od. aus der Schule
2) attrib. Schul[aufsatz, -bus, -jahr, -system]school holidays — Schulferien Pl.
school exchange — Schüleraustausch, der
3) (disciples) Schule, die2. transitive verbschool of thought — Lehrmeinung, die
(train) erziehen; dressieren [Pferd]II nounschool somebody in something — jemanden in etwas (Akk.) unterweisen (geh.)
* * *n.Lehranstalt f.Schule -n f. -
18 computationally intensive
о приложениях, требующих больших объёмов вычислений или большой вычислительной мощности.Although the technique is very powerful compared to other machine learning methods it is also computationally intensive — Хотя этот метод значительно мощнее других методов машинного обучения, он требует большого объёма вычислений см. тж. data-intensive computing, math-intensive, processor-intensive
Англо-русский толковый словарь терминов и сокращений по ВТ, Интернету и программированию. > computationally intensive
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19 instruction
1. n обучение, преподавание2. n инструктаж, инструктирование3. n амер. наказ4. n полит. императивный мандат; директива голосовать за кандидата или мероприятие5. n образование, образованность, знания6. n обыкн. инструкции, указания, директивы; приказания, распоряжения7. n юр. наказ присяжным8. n тех. руководство; техническая инструкция9. n вчт. команда, инструкция, программаСинонимический ряд:1. education (noun) education; erudition; knowledge; learning; scholarship; science2. illumination (noun) edification; enlightenment; illumination3. order (noun) behest; bidding; charge; command; commandment; dictate; direction; directive; injunction; mandate; order; word4. teaching (noun) coaching; drill; exercise; indoctrination; pedagogy; schooling; teaching; training; tuition; tutelage; tutoring -
20 Artificial Intelligence
In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, EventuallyJust as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the ProgramMany problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)[AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract FormThe basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory FormationIt is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular ContextsEven if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial IntelligenceThe primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary PropositionsIn artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
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